Causes and their effects are basic to narrative, but they take place in time. Here again our story-plot distinction helps clarify how time shapes our understanding of narrative action. As we watch a film, we construct story time on the basis of what the plot presents. In film time is manipulated in order for the narrative to be possible within the time frame of the film.
events in chronological order (most plots don't show every detail from the beginning till the end)
events out of chronological order (Citizen Kane): we must build up the chronological version
the plot present the same story event more than once (Run Lola Run, Rashomon)
Order, duration, frequency
Such options mean that in constructing the film's story out of its plot, the viewer is engaged in trying to put events in chronological order and to assign them some duration and frequency.
Temporal order This is the order events told in the film. From the plot order, we infer the story order. If story events can be thought of as ABCD, then the plot that uses a flashback presents something like BACD. Similarly, a flash-forward, that is, moving from present to future then back to the present, would also be an instance of how plot can shuffle story order. A flash-forward could be represented as ABDC.
Temporal duration The separation between an event and its narration means that there is discourse time and narrative time. These are the two main elements of duration. In general, a film's plot selects certain stretches of story duration. The sum of all these slices of story duration yields an overall plot duration. The second type is screen duration, the time for watching a film (20 minutes, 90 minutes, 8 hours). There is thus a third duration involved in a narrative film, which we can call screen duration. The relationships among story duration, plot duration, and screen duration are complex, but for our purposes, we can say this: the filmmaker can manipulate screen duration independently of the overall story duration and plot duration.
Temporal frequency Most commonly, a story event is presented only once in the plot. Occasionally, however, a single story event may appear twice or even more in the plot treatment. If we see an event early in a film and then there is a flashback to that event later on, we see that same event twice. Some films use multiple narrators, each of whom describes the same event; again, we see it occur several times. This increased frequency may allow us to see the same action in several ways. The plot may also provide us with more information, so that we understand the event in a new context when it reappears. The separation between an event and its narration allows several possibilities.
An event can occur once and be narrated once (singular). 'Today I went to the shop.'
An event can occur n times and be narrated once (iterative). 'I used to go to the shop.'
An event can occur once and be narrated n times (repetitive). 'Today I went to the shop' , 'Today he went to the shop' etc.
An event can occur n times and be narrated n times (multiple). 'I used to go to the shop', 'He used to go to the shop' + 'I went to the shop yesterday' etc.
The various ways that a film's plot may manipulate story order, duration, and frequency illustrate how we actively participate in making sense of the narrative film. The plot supplies cues about chronological sequence, the time span of the actions, and the number of times an event occurs, and it's up to the viewer to make assumptions and inferences and to form expectations. In some cases, understanding of temporal relations can get quite complicated.
see Film Art, pp. 83.
Time manipulation
Very few screen stories take place in real time.
There are many conventions to denote time passing.
In film time is manipulated in order
for the narrative to be possible within the timeframe of the film.
flashbacks
dream sequences
repetition
different characters' POV
flash forwards
real time interludes
pre-figuring of events that have not yet taken place
fade to black
day to night
changed
locations
season changes
parallel actions
List and explanation of film time manipulation terms:
Screen time: a period of time represented by events within a film (e.g. a day, a week).
Subjective time. The time experienced or felt by a character in a film, as revealed through camera movement and editing (e.g. when a frightened person's flight from danger is prolonged).
Compressed time. The compression of time between sequences or scenes, and within scenes. This is the most frequent manipulation of time in films: it is achieved with cuts or dissolves. In a dramatic narrative, if climbing a staircase is not a significant part of the plot, a shot of a character starting up the stairs may then cut to him entering a room. The logic of the situation and our past experience of medium tells us that the room is somewhere at the top of the stairs. Long journeys can be compressed into seconds. Time may also be compressed between cutaways in parallel editing. More subtle compression can occur after reaction shots or close-ups have intervened. The use of dissolves was once a cue for the passage of a relatively long period of time.
Long take. A single shot (or take, or run of the camera) which lasts for a relatively lengthy period of time. The long take has an 'authentic' feel since it is not inherently dramatic.
Simultaneous time. Events in different places can be presented as occurring at the same moment, by parallel editing or cross-cutting, by multiple images or split-screen. The conventional clue to indicate that events or shots are taking place at the same time is that there is no progression of shots: shots are either inserted into the main action or alternated with each other until the strands are somehow united.
Slow motion. Action which takes place on the screen at a slower rate than the rate at which the action took place before the camera. This is used: a) to make a fast action visible; b) to make a familiar action strange; c) to emphasise a dramatic moment. It can have a lyric and romantic quality or it can amplify violence.
Accelerated motion (under-cranking) . This is used: a) to make a slow action visible; b) to make a familiar action funny; c) to increase the thrill of speed.
Reverse motion. Reproducing action backwards, for comic, magical or explanatory effect.
Replay. An action sequence repeated, often in slow motion, commonly featured in the filming of sport to review a significant event.
Freeze-frame. This gives the image the appearance of a still photograph. Clearly not a naturalistic device.
Flashback. A break in the chronology of a narrative in which events from the past are disclosed to the viewer. Formerly indicated conventionally with defocus or ripple dissolves.
Flashforward. Much less common than the flashback. Not normally associated with a particular character. Associated with objective treatments.
Extended or expanded time/overlapping action. The expansion of time can be accomplished by intercutting a series of shots, or by filming the action from different angles and editing them together. Part of an action may be repeated from another viewpoint, e.g. a character is shown from the inside of a building opening a door and the next shot, from the outside, shows him opening it again. Used nakedly this device disrupts the audience's sense of real time. The technique may be used unobtrusively to stretch time, perhaps to exaggerate, for dramatic effect, the time taken to walk down a corridor. Sometimes combined with slow motion.
Ambiguous time. Within the context of a well-defined timescheme sequences may occur which are ambiguous in time. This is most frequently communicated through dissolves and superimpositions.
Universal time. This is deliberately created to suggest universal relevance. Ideas rather than examples are emphasised. Context may be disrupted by frequent cuts and by the extensive use of close-ups and other shots which do not reveal a specific background.